Hippopotamus movements structure the spatiotemporal dynamics of an active anthrax outbreak

Globally, anthrax outbreaks pose a serious threat to people, livestock, and wildlife. Furthermore, environmental change can exacerbate these outbreak dynamics by altering the host–pathogen relationship. However, little is known about how quantitative spatial of host movement may affect spread Bacillus anthracis, causative agent anthrax. Here, we use real-time observations high-resolution tracking data from population common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) in Tanzania explore relationship between river hydrology, H. amphibius movement, spatiotemporal an active outbreak. We found that extreme drying, consequence anthropogenic disturbances our study river, indirectly facilitated B. anthracis modulating movements. Our findings reveal upstream Great Ruaha River (~3.5 km over 9-day period), which followed patterns infected amphibius, who moved as dried search remaining aquatic refugia. These movements result large aggregations amphibius. despite aggregations, density pools did not influence number anthracis-induced mortalities. Moreover, infection appear behaviors, suggests individuals vector distances right up until their death. Finally, show contact rates amphibius- anthracis-infected are highly variable frequency duration contacts could potentially increase probability mortality. While difficult obtain, insights gathered during critical better understand, predict, manage future outbreaks.